| Eradication of Hunger: A Challenge Before Nations | | | | under pressure to trim their budgets and cannot |
| The first millennium development goal (MDG) is to | | | | afford to expend resources on poverty or hunger |
| halve poverty and hunger by 2015. Hunger and | | | | alleviation programmes that do not reach the truly |
| malnutrition are major causes of the deprivation and | | | | needy. Nilabja Ghosh and Basudeb Guha- Khasnobis |
| suffering targeted by all of the other MDGs. Without | | | | (Food Security, Chapter 8) review the experience of |
| rapid progress in reducing hunger, achieving the other | | | | India in targeted food-security strategies. They trace |
| MDGs related to poverty reduction, education, child | | | | the evolution of the ‘public works |
| mortality, maternal health, and disease will be | | | | programme’ and found some mismatches. |
| impossible. | | | | However, there are also pockets of |
| Nearly 30 per cent of the world’s population is | | | | ‘success’, mainly in the state of Orissa in |
| currently suffering from one or more forms of | | | | eastern India, which give rise to optimism. |
| malnutrition. Approximately 840 million people are | | | | Intra-household Food Security: The Role of Women |
| undernourished or chronically food insecure, and as | | | | The status of women in a society has telling effects |
| many as 2.8 million children and 300,000 women die | | | | on both the intrahousehold distribution of food, as |
| every year because of malnutrition in developing | | | | well as its total availability. Basudeb Guha-Khasnobis |
| countries. According to FAO, if each of the | | | | and Gautam Hazarika (Food Security, Chapter 5) find |
| developing regions continues to reduce hunger at the | | | | that in Pakistan for example, the relative standing of |
| current pace, only South America and the Caribbean | | | | a mother compared to her husband—measured by |
| will reach the MDG target of cutting the proportion | | | | differential educational attainment—as well as her |
| of hungry people by half. None will reach the more | | | | access to cash income, is positively associated with |
| ambitious World Food Summit goal of halving the | | | | the improved nutritional status of her children. |
| number of hungry people. | | | | Further, the mother’s relative standing is also |
| Despite the scale of human suffering brought about | | | | associated with less spending on adult goods (alcohol, |
| by malnutrition, the fight against world hunger | | | | tobacco). Taken together, these results suggest that |
| receives less attention than the fight against poverty | | | | policy initiatives that seek to improve child nutritional |
| from bilateral and multilateral donors and lending | | | | status should focus in part on improving the relative |
| agencies. A by-product of the lack of attention to | | | | bargaining power of women in households, through |
| food security is that the issue is relatively | | | | access to education. |
| understudied compared to poverty. The UNU-WIDER | | | | Although the relationship of gender, food security, |
| research project ‘Hunger and Food | | | | and rural livelihoods has been acknowledged in the |
| Security’, addressed some of these gaps in the | | | | literature on HIV/AIDS impacts, relatively few studies |
| literature. It was undertaken in collaboration with the | | | | provide empirical evidence among vulnerable |
| Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), | | | | households. The findings of a study are thus |
| and with research contributions from the Food and | | | | presented (Food Insecurity, Chapter 6) from Namibia, |
| Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). | | | | Uganda, and Zambia using a sustainable livelihood |
| The project resulted in two books entitled Food | | | | framework to investigate gender aspects of HIV/ |
| Security: Indicators, Measurement, and the Impact of | | | | AIDS effects. HIV infected households face labour |
| Trade Openness and, Food Insecurity, Vulnerability | | | | shortage and a reduced cultivated area. Their asset |
| and Human Rights Failure, both edited by Basudeb | | | | holdings are also lower. There was also a reduction in |
| Guha-Khasnobis, Shabd S. Acharya and Benjamin | | | | meals eaten per day. All these were more |
| Davis, and henceforth referred to as Food Security | | | | pronounced in female-headed households than others. |
| and Food Insecurity, respectively. | | | | This suggests an acute need for mainstreaming HIV |
| While lack of sustained economic growth is an | | | | AIDS concerns through the national statistical |
| important determinant of hunger, the persistence of | | | | systems, instead of limiting interest in HIV/AIDS |
| hunger also feeds back to limit economic growth. | | | | statistics to the health sector. |
| Many years of empirical evidence point to the | | | | The Right to Food |
| negative impact of hunger and malnutrition on labour | | | | While availability and access present themselves as |
| productivity, health, and education, which ultimately | | | | fairly straightforward researchable issues in hunger, |
| leads to lower levels of overall economic growth. | | | | there is an important dimension of human right, which |
| Hunger is thus as much a cause as an effect of | | | | transcends the frontiers of economics and takes us |
| poverty. Good nutrition is an investment in human | | | | into the realm of political economy. Is the right to |
| capital that raises output as well as the returns on | | | | food a basic human and social right? Is this right |
| investments in education and health care. Taken | | | | recognized in national constitutions? Are there |
| together, these findings provide powerful evidence | | | | differences in the extent to which such rights are |
| that public spending in reducing hunger is an | | | | recognized under different political regimes |
| investment with high returns and should constitute a | | | | (democracy versus non-democracy, for example)? |
| top priority for developing countries. | | | | The international development community needs to |
| National Food Security | | | | provide firm answers and urge individual countries to |
| National food security is determined by the | | | | comply. According to some existing international |
| combination of national policies relating to food | | | | commitments, while only states are accountable for |
| production, the extent of food trade, the degree of | | | | its compliance, all members of society (individuals, |
| linkages with other countries, and trade policies of | | | | families, local communities, NGOs, civil society |
| other countries—especially relating to the support | | | | organizations, as well as the private business sector) |
| provided to their food producers. It calls for careful | | | | have responsibilities in the realization of the right to |
| monitoring of such related developments as | | | | food. The state should promote an enabling |
| developing countries increasingly link their economies | | | | environment for the implementation of these |
| to the world market. The South Pacific island | | | | responsibilities. A major step in speeding up the |
| countries (Food Insecurity, Chapter 2), for example, | | | | process of implementing the right to food has been |
| are net importers of cereals, and their import | | | | the formulation of voluntary guidelines by an |
| dependence increased during 1991–2002. The | | | | inter-governmental working group on the right to |
| reason for the increase is either an absolute decline in | | | | food constituted by the AO Council and subsequently |
| the production of staple food or, a lower rate of | | | | circulated to all countries, both developing and |
| growth of production relative to the population. | | | | developed. |
| National food security in these countries is dependent | | | | However, the guidelines are legally non-binding. A case |
| on subsistence farming and the tapping of ocean | | | | study of India (Food Insecurity, Chapter 13) illustrates |
| resources. The demand for imported food is met | | | | how judicial systems and courts can be used for |
| through export earnings from primary products. In | | | | ensuring the right to food. The genesis of the right |
| this context, the volatility in prices in the world | | | | to food litigation in India lies in the widespread |
| market can be a threat to the food security of island | | | | protests by citizens’ organizations, in the wake |
| countries. Fiji, for example, exports sugar to | | | | of severe consecutive droughts, asking for the |
| protected European markets, but the phasing out of | | | | scaling-up of drought relief operations, followed by a |
| protection in 2007, and the subsequent state of the | | | | public interest petition filed in the supreme court by |
| markets, is a matter of serious concern for Fiji in | | | | one such citizens’ organization, the People’s |
| financing its food imports. | | | | Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL), in 2001. |
| Uncertainties such as this reiterate the need for | | | | Several legal experts were either a part of PUCL or |
| efforts to improve domestic productivity through | | | | supported the move. While the court became active, |
| public investment in infrastructure, irrigation, | | | | the citizens’ organizations continued to pursue |
| agricultural research, and technology transfer. Andrew | | | | the matter and put pressure on the government. |
| Charman and James Hodge (Food Security, Chapter | | | | The measures impacting the right to food included |
| 11) however, focus on the more positive implications | | | | putting in place a National Employment Guarantee |
| of the WTO’s agricultural negotiations on the | | | | Act, scaling-up of midday meals in schools, a scheme |
| agricultural and food security policy of South African | | | | for supplying food to destitute families, the supply of |
| Development Community (SADC) countries. They | | | | food grains at affordable prices to poor families, |
| document how changes in food security policy since | | | | supplementary nutrition programmes for infants and |
| the Uruguay Round, including trade liberalization, and | | | | mothers, and effective implementation of these and |
| the subsequent food crisis of 2001–03 have | | | | a PDS of food grains. While the citizens’ |
| impacted the negotiating strategy of these countries. | | | | organizations continued to provide feedback to the |
| Further, the authors provide an assessment of the | | | | court, the court issued a series of judicial directions |
| potential impact of the proposed tariff and subsidy | | | | to the government. Apart from these schemes, the |
| reduction modalities on government policymaking. | | | | litigation covered several associated issues, particularly |
| They conclude that the proposed modalities in the | | | | pertaining to governance. The study has clearly |
| current round are unlikely to restrict SADC policies to | | | | illustrated the kind of directions that could be |
| enhance and assure food availability, access, and | | | | obtained from the court for making the right to food |
| security. Moreover, the low levels of domestic | | | | a reality. It also illustrates the need for a vibrant civil |
| support and high bound tariffs ensure that agreed | | | | society group, without which the court alone may |
| reductions would still leave SADC countries with | | | | not be effectively empowered. |
| sufficient policy space to pursue food security and | | | | The UNU-WIDER study highlights the need to look at |
| agricultural development policy. | | | | the problem of hunger from a combination of |
| Household Food Security | | | | economic, social, and political perspectives. These |
| Our research on India and Vietnam presents | | | | dimensions are intertwined, making it necessary for a |
| inter-temporal comparisons of the state of under | | | | variety of actors to pull together as a unit to fight |
| nutrition. Besides China, both these countries have | | | | against hunger. It implies that academic research on |
| outperformed others in their development cohort in | | | | the economic dimensions of hunger across regions, |
| terms of overall growth rates. | | | | the experiences of international organizations in their |
| But while the nutritional status of the population | | | | forays into the social and political dimensions of the |
| shows an improvement over time in Vietnam, it | | | | problem, and key messages emanating from the |
| shows a worsening in India, particularly for the rural | | | | work of civil society organizations at the grassroots |
| poor. It implies that the challenges of reforms and | | | | levels, have plenty to draw upon from one another. |
| globalization—in protecting the well-being of the | | | | The result, hopefully, will be a concerted and |
| poor—may be different for large (India, China) and | | | | coordinated action by the international community as |
| small (Vietnam) countries in important ways. | | | | a whole in eradicating hunger. |
| However, a well-targeted public distribution system | | | | References |
| (PDS) is very likely to work for both sets of | | | | 1. Basudeb Guha-Khasnobis, Shabd S. Acharya and |
| countries. The role of the PDS in improving food | | | | Benjamin Davis (ed.) “Security: Indicators, |
| security was examined in a comparative set up (Food | | | | Measurement, and the Impact of Trade |
| Insecurity, Chapter 5) between India and China. | | | | Openness”, 2001 |
| PDS is a useful policy instrument, particularly when | | | | 2. Basudeb Guha-Khasnobis, Shabd S. Acharya and |
| there is a food shortage or just barely enough. It can | | | | Benjamin Davis (ed.) “Food Insecurity, |
| also be a cost-effective measure to counteract | | | | Vulnerability and Human Rights Failure”, 2001 |
| poverty. A buffer stock controlled by the | | | | 3. Brown LR, Eradicating Hunger, A Growing |
| government is essential to ensure and improve a | | | | Challenge, State of the World 2001, New York, 2001, |
| country’s food security, regardless of whether | | | | pp 43-62 |
| or not a physical PDS is maintained. India can draw on | | | | 4. Eradicating Hunger, Moving from Pilot Projects to |
| China’s policy of managing its buffer stock with | | | | National Programmes to Meet the World Food |
| more flexibility. Likewise, China may draw on the | | | | Summit Goal, A Report for Food and Agriculture |
| Indian policy of managing its buffer stock with | | | | Organisation (accessed from docrep/007 |
| transparency. With an improvement in average | | | | 5. J Von Braun, MS Swaminathan, MW Rosegrant, |
| incomes, PDS should be reformed by making it more | | | | Agriculture, food security, nutrition and the Millennium |
| flexible and targeted. In particular, India should | | | | Development Goals, 2002 |
| consider reducing the size of its PDS operations, and | | | | 6. G Fischer, M Shah, H van Velthuizen, Climate |
| targeting it to only the poor and those affected by | | | | Change and Agricultural Vulnerability, Report prepared |
| natural calamities—the truly vulnerable groups. This | | | | for World Summit for Sustainable Development, 2002 |
| is particularly important as most governments are | | | | 7. |